Joseph Stalin Essay Example for Free

Joseph Stalin Essay World leaders are leaders with high governmental power in the world. Every leader, not just world leaders, is either great or corrupt; they are rarely both. Most of Russia’s history is filled with corrupt leaders. Joseph was one of those leaders. Stalin killed millions of people during his rule. But Stalin also led the Soviet Union almost to the top in world power. Stalin had many influences that led him to his Soviet Leadership in which gave him many admirers but even more non-supporters. At the age of 10, Joseph â€Å"Stalin† Djugashvili attended Gori’s religious elementary school. His mother, Yekaterina, wanted him to be a priest and would usually beat her son if he son whenever he misbehaved. These beatings were never as bad as those received from his father, Vissarion. Vissarion would frequently beat Stalin and his mother until they finally had enough and Yekaterina kicked Vissarion out. In 1894, at the age of 16, Stalin attended the Tiflis Seminary on a full scholarship. At the school, in 1899, he joined an underground Marxist revolutionary group. Because of his membership in this group, him and other revolutionaries were arrested and sent to Siberia. Two years later, Stalin escaped from Siberia. On his return, he joined the RSDLP or Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. Later, when the RSDLP split because of differences, he joined the Bolsheviks half under the control of Vladimir Lenin. With the Bolsheviks, Stalin helped with many revolutions. The first was the take down of Tsar Nicholas II and the Russian Tsarist government. With the tsarist takedown, Russia set up a new provisional government. It worked at first but then it started going downhill. Since fleeing the country in fear of arrest, Lenin put Stalin in charge of the central committee of the Bolsheviks Party. Unimpressed by Stalin’s compromising with the Provisional government, Lenin started writing hate letters to the provisional government. Most, if not all, of these letters were published in Stalin’s communist newspaper, Pravda. The Pravda was one of the ways the Bolsheviks spread the communist revolt. The Russian’s loss in the Russo-Japanese war was the another way that they got the public to turn against the provisional government and strengthen the communist revolt. The revolt got stronger and stronger until the Bolsheviks finally revolted and took down the Russian Provisional Government. Because of this, civil war erupted all over the country. At the end of this war, in 1920, the Bolsheviks set up the USSR, or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, under control of Vladimir Lenin. When Lenin died, Stalin aggressively worked his way up until he was the leader of the USSR. In his control, Stalin set up a â€Å"5 year plan† to advance the Russian economy from just farming to also having industry. In this plan, he would also advance the military and â€Å"cleanse the country of villains† or those he saw as villains. To â€Å"cleanse the country†, Stalin would have unfair trials that would have many on trial at once. These were called his â€Å"Show Trials†. The majority, if not all, of these people were found guilty and sent for execution. They were executed all at once, and the executions were called the Purges. To advance the Russian economy, Stalin would work the farmers to death†¦ literally. When the farmers revolted, Stalin stopped sending them food and even more died from starvation. On the last of the purges, 16 men were put on trial and accused of acts of terrorism towards Stalin and the Soviet government. Two of them were Stalin’s allies after Lenin’s death, Zinovyev and Kamenev. All 16 of them confessed although none they were innocent. One of the accused that wasn’t sent to execution was Robert Eikhe. Eikhe wrote a letter to Stalin saying that Stalin was wrong and shouldn’t have executed those men. Furious, Stalin demanded that Eikhe was shot to death. Not too long after, Stalin’s wife died. With that, Stalin will never truly trust anyone or ever be the same. In Europe, there was another leader rising to power, Germany’s Adolf Hitler. Stalin admired Hitler and, in WW2, hoped they wouldn’t have to fight, so the USSR and Germany signed a Nonaggression Pact to avoid battle between them. It wasn’t too long until Hitler broke the Pact and attacked Ukraine. During the invasion, the Soviet air force was wiped out. Feeling surprised and betrayed, Stalin had a mental breakdown. Stalin finally pulled himself together and set up a â€Å"Scorched Earth† policy. He had both soldier and citizen initiate this scorched earth policy by destroying everything the Germans needed in their area and push out the invading Germans from Ukraine, which was taken under German control. Many were killed in the invasion; the Germans captured four million and killed three million people. Then the Soviets started fighting back. In that winter, many Germans died because of harsh weather and lack of supplies. Towards the end, Roosevelt sent weapons, equipment, and food to the Soviet Union. Stalin launched his final attack on the Germans in Stalingrad. At the end of WW2, Germany was left with nothing and no one in control. The â€Å"big three† (The United States’ Franklin D. Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, and Britain’s Winston Churchill) met in Yalta, Ukraine. In Yalta, they discussed many topics. One of them was about Germany. They split Germany into four parts. The four parts were under control of the USSR, USA, Britain, and France. They also talked about Roosevelt’s preposition and set up the United Nations. The effects WW2 had on the Soviet Union were drastic. People would have their houses destroyed and had to live in their caves. The food rationings for the poor would continue for a while. Stalin knew nothing about it. It got worse when the United States stopped sending supplies. Because of this, Stalin declared war on the United States and its allies. This war would was called the Cold War. At that, the Soviet Union started developing nuclear technology and tension escaladed. Not too long after, United States President Harry Truman set up the â€Å"Marshal Plan† which had no trade sent to the Soviet Union or any other communist country. A little after that, Germany was officially split into two parts, East and West. East Germany and East Berlin was under Soviet Control. West Germany and West Berlin was under United States, British, and French control. Stalin blockaded East Berlin from the West. Knowing the end of this life was near, Stalin did many things to make sure he would be remembered. He wrote a 16 volume set of books, and he built canals and bridges to â€Å"show his control over nature†. Many of the projects were unfinished, though. Not too long before his death, Stalin accused seven doctors of planning to kill him and other governmental officials that were their patients, and put all seven on trial. On March 1st, 1952, Stalin suffered a stroke caused by a burst blood vessel in his brain in his mansion outside Moscow. He died four days later. After his death, Stalin still had many supporters. The Supporters mourned the loss of their great leader. They disregarded the millions of murders or say that they were for the better of the country. They also believed that some of the negative information was fake and still remain loyal to him. Other people that were non-loyal to Stalin were glad that he’s gone. The non-supporters renamed the bridges and streets he named after himself. They also renamed Stalingrad to Volgograd. The propaganda Stalin used didn’t completely work. He tried having history books rewritten to make him look peaceful because despite the terror, he wanted peace to be part of his remembrance. Stalin would have picture taken and paintings made of him doing good or kind things. He would also say things to make it look like his murders were okay. In one of his speeches, he said â€Å"A great danger hangs over our country. † (â€Å"Stalin, Joseph 1878-1952† 205) He says this for his multiple 5 Year Plans and his Purges. Joseph Stalin will always be known as the man who changed Russia. He evolved the working class country into an industrial, Military-strong country. His goals for Russia and the Union were good, but the ways he reached those goals weren’t so good and that’s why many people didn’t like him. The opinion of Stalin that I had was that he was a terrible ruler and that he thought for the worst; that changed. I learned that he wanted to advance Russian economy from farming to more industrial factories and that gave me more respect towards him, but I still think he could have done better.

Are Ghosts An Illusion Of The Mind Philosophy Essay

Are Ghosts An Illusion Of The Mind Philosophy Essay Ghosts are just one of the many subtopics that reside within the topic of paranormal. Paranormal experiences are studied using parapsychology: a scientific approach to supposedly paranormal experiences. With the use of H. J. Irwins brilliant book called, An Introduction to Parapsychology Third Edition, and Bobby Elgees article called, Evidence of the Paranormal and Ghosts, we are able to deduce a theoretically sound explanation of what is paranormal and since when has the topic been studied. Then, we analyze the survival hypothesis and the ability of a soul to live outside the body. After, we proceed to the definition of ghosts and their usual whereabouts while setting the conditions that they usually appear in as well as to who they appear. Finally, we go on to claiming that these experiences are not really ghosts, but either hallucinations or just simply paranormal due to the witnesses wild conclusion that it couldnt be anything other than a ghost. Ghosts: An Illusion of the Mind Ghosts are not what you think they are, far from it. They arent the friendly little ghost you see in Casper, nor are they the Bloody Baron from SpongeBob Squarepants who haunts the ocean for eternity. They might not even be anything at all, just a word people exploit to an unknown object which might have a logical explanation. Yet, most cultures in the world believe in the body having a soul which like the heart, can exist and survive in another body. Yet, even if such an idea is generally believe by a large population of the world, it may not be true. Thought or belief proves nothing, for if it were, then a group could believe in radioactive helicopter bunnies and it would be fact. Yet, people need proof, therefore, to believe ghosts, we need proof that they exist. Life isnt neither what people see in movies, read in books nor see in pictures. Therefore, neither are ghosts. In order to prove ghosts dont exist, we have to analyze the parapsychological and the paranormal, the survival theory, the situations in which ghost usually appear and how most experiences are most likely fakes. According to Bobby Elgee, the word paranormal simply means not scientifically explainable.' (Elgee, 2009, pg 1) Meanwhile, parapsychology is known as the study of apparent anomalies of behavior and experience that exist apart from currently known explanatory mechanisms that account for organism-environment and organism-organism information and influence flow (Irwin, 1999, pg 1). Therefore, it is the commutation of a being to another, or a being to a surrounding. In other words, parapsychology is using a scientific approach to study experiences that may be paranormal and to determine whether or not the evident paranormal quality of a given class of parapsychological experience is authentic or ontologically real. (Irwin, 1999, pg 9) According to Irwin, recorded instances of parapsychological experiences of course may be found among all cultures and in all historic periods. (Irwin, 1999, pg 13) Yet, the testing of such experiences for accuracy and authenticity was slower to emerge. Some, such as Henry More and Joseph Glanvill showed themselves alert to the possibility of fraud, delusion, and unreliable observation, but their views more religious than scientific as they were endeavoring to ascertain the earthly presence of the devil and diabolical forces. (Irwin, 1999, pg 14) It was later that Francis Bacon made a call for objective scrutiny of parapsychological experiences (Irwin, 1999, pg 14) which was more scientific than More and Glanvill, but at the time society was not receptive to such a view and Bacons arguments went unheeded. (Irwin, 1999, pg 14) Then, a center in England called the Society for Psychical Research where parapsychologists are united in their conviction that the objective investigation of pa rapsychological phenomena was called for, despite the prevailing disinterest in such research among the established divisions of science. (Irwin, 1999, pg 13) Even today, most of society disregards the subject as scientific, yet parapsychology is under taken as a scientific endeavor regardless of its subject matter, flaws in any of its research procedures, and the skeptical rhetoric of its critics. (Irwin, 1999, pg 2) Therefore, Irwin states that, All ESP experiences thus are parapsychological, but we require proof that any of them could be paranormal. (Irwin, 1999, pg 2) How do parapsychologists know that an experience is truly paranormal? According the Elgee, Competent paranormal investigators will attempt to rule out the anomaly (Elgee, 2009, pg 1) or anything that seems abnormal or irregular. If someone captures a photo of a strange orb or mist, parapsychologists would ask all questions possible in order to rule out irregularities such as: is it a reflection? Is it a bug? Is it dust? Is it condensation on the lens of the camera? Is it a problem with the developing and/or printing process? (Elgee, 2009, pg 1) Yet, according to Irwin, parapsychologists focus of study is purely a matter of appearance, of how an experience seems to be. (Irwin, 1999, pg 2) Therefore, even if the survival hypothesis proves not to provide a legitimate basis for their conceptual integration, each of these experiences appears to entail the existence of a nonphysical or spiritual self (Irwin, 1999, pg 9) thereby, the experience is parapsychological. The authenticity of the experience relates to the question of whether the issue of underlying processes concerns the question of how? (Irwin, 1999, pg 9) For it to be paranormal, the question of must be raised. How is this possible? How did this come here? How did it happen? If the question of how cannot be answered, it is hence called paranormal. Yet, there are groups today that are causing a steadfast declination in the belief of the paranormal. They are damaging the credibility of legitimate and accomplished paranormal researchers and parapsychologists by posting photographs that are easily dismissed as well-known and easily identifiable camera malfunctions and other artifacts of the photographic process. (Elgee, 2009) If people keep on claiming that every small malfunction is an apparition or paranormal experience, then nobody would believe if a true paranormal experience emerged. It would be the boy who called wolf all over again, except with ghosts, orbs, mists and many other strange paranormals. According to Irwin, the survival hypothesis concerns the notion of postmortem survival, that is, that a disembodied consciousness or some such discarnate element of human personality might survive bodily death at least for a time. (Irwin, 1999, pg 175) Simply stated, the survival hypothesis is the notion that there is some element of human existence that survives death. (Irwin, 1999, pg 8) For an apparition or spirit to appear, it has to be able to survive outside the body. Due to the fact that apparitions, ghosts as a matter of fact, can be of the living, we can assume that survival does not necessarily imply immortality or eternal existence (Irwin, 1999, pg 175) after death of the body, but more of the soul being able to survive outside the body for a limited time. Therefore, when comprehending an experience in which an apparition is involved, parapsychologists must be able to believe that a disembodied consciousness or some such discarnate element of human personality might surviv e bodily death at least for a time. (Irwin, 1999, pg 175) Due to implications of an existence after death, the survival hypothesis has obvious religious connotations. (Irwin, 1999, pg 175) Yet, since the topic is being studied from a scientific point of view, these are of no concern. Therefore, when looking at the topic from a scientific point of view, we ask questions. In order to analyze, the first step is to ask questions in order to be able to understand all aspects of the situation. Becker asks, is there a nonphysical element of human existence that can separate from the physical body, can survive organic death, can reattach its organization as an integral personality after death, can appear before and haunt the living, [and] can be born again in another body? (Becker, 1993, pg 9) Yet, it cannot be scientifically proven that there is a life after death since there is no evidence. That is a question of faith at this point in time since there is no scientific evidence of the exis tence of ghosts or an afterlife. (Elgee, 2009) Therefore, we have to assume accordingly that in case of a life after death, we could thereby presume a ghost to be real. Yet, until then, all suggestions are merely that and nothing else. A ghost is a type of apparition. According to Irwin, an apparition is encountered in a perceptual-like experience and relates to a person or animal that is not physically present, with physical means of communication being ruled out. (Irwin, 1999, pg 243) Therefore, for it to be an apparition there has to be evidence that the figure is not there and has no possible means of a connection to the witness. Yet, Irwin states that it is held to be pointless to speak of apparitions unless we mean this term to refer to the hypothesis of an objective entity. (Irwin, 1999, pg 243) He goes on to say the having defined the term thus, it is up to parapsychologists to ascertain if these hypothesized objective entities actually exist. (Irwin, 1999, pg 243) Therefore, it is up to parapsychologists to study all rational explanations until there are no explanations, naming the experience as paranormal, but not necessarily an apparition. As Eglee states, If weve done a good job ruling out everything, w e may just be left with something paranormal. Thats it. (Elgee, 2009) We cannot call something unexplainable by a name other than paranormal, or seemingly an apparition. Otherwise, it would be metaphorical to calling someone you dont know Bob. You may assume it to be Bob, but he is just an unknown somebody until evidence proves otherwise. One problem that could be raised against any definition of the apparition (Irwin, 1999, pg 243) is that it could be a hallucination. Unless witnesses by more than one sanitary person, an apparition could be a persons mind playing tricks on the so-called experient. Therefore, parapsychologists have gone from studying the apparition to studying the apparitional experience in order to adopt a phenomenological approach (Irwin, 1999, pg 244) in the field of study. According to Irwin, so-called ghosts are recurrent haunting apparitions, that is, the same figure is witnessed in the same location on a number of occasions often by a number of different experients. (Irwin, 1999, 250) Here, we witness Irwin suggesting that for the figure to be a ghost, it has to be seen in the same location, more than once and by different witnesses. He also adds that some ghosts reportedly perform the same actions in the same location on each occasion they are experienced. (Irwin, 1999, pg 244) He states that they appear real and solid as well as that their appearance changes as the experient moves around it. They occlude objects they move in front of and are occluded by objects they move behind. (Irwin, 1999, pg 244) He also includes instances in which they may cast a shadow or when the experient may perceive their reflection in a mirror. (Irwin, 1999, 244) This disproves the transparent misty forms popularized in fiction (Irwin, 1999, 244) Irwin states that most figures are experienced within 10 feet of the subject and in the majority of cases (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) the figure is not recognized by the experient. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) If an experience is defined as paranormal, is truly justifiable to be able to call the irregularity a ghost? Even Elgee proclaims, To take the next step and call a possibly paranormal photograph a picture of a ghost is a leap of faith that I, personally, cant swallow. A person can certainly make that statement, but at that point it becomes an opinion, a statement based on belief and faith. (Elgee, 2009) He goes on to proclaim that, At that point, I can choose what I believe. Theres simply no evidence backing it up. (Elgee, 2009) Even in spirit communication there are points where the truth simply depends on faith. The medium could be lying, unless it is one of the rare instances where the medium received some skill the personality demonstrably possessed while alive but which the medium himself/herself does not have. (Irwin, 1999, pg 177) Ghost recognition is simply to irrational to be studied scientifically. As Elgee proclaims, ghost hunting doesnt lend itself to a well-controlled scientific experiment. (Elgee, 2009) He goes on to state that, The methodologies are weak, the equipment used was never originally designed to detect ghosts, and it is nearly impossible to replicate the results. (Elgee, 2009) Therefore, how can it be proved that ghosts exist with the use of insufficient methods and equipment that was not made for ghost hunting? Even Irwin states that, in no way is there any presumption here of the existence of the paranormal even though many contemporary parapsychologists (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) actually regard parapsychology as the study of the paranormal. (Irwin, 1999, pg 1) If someone who has spent most of his life studying the paranormal refuses to proclaim the existence of it, then how can we believe the many who claim without proof that a minor irregularity is something major such as the ghost of dead perso n? Are there really such things as ghosts due to the fact that most of the apparitions seen are dead? According to Irwin, about 70% of recognized apparitions are of people whom the experient knew to be dead. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) He goes on to proclaim that the number of ghost an experient witnesses may vary with the age of the individual or more precisely, with the number of deceased persons the individual knew. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) Therefore, it assumed that the more dead people you know, the more likely you are able to see ghosts. Is it truly ghosts? Or is it the mind playing memories of actions you have seen the diseased performing in a certain place every time you pass by. For example, you see your dead grandmother planting flowers in the garden every time you walk by on a visit. Most experients are likely to lie or jump to conclusions, therefore, we can presume that the operation of fraud (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) remain potential interpretations (Irwin, 1999, pg 177) of such proclamations as the sightings of ghosts or other apparitions. It might even be a story used to increase the experients reputation in order to make him/her more interesting. One of Irwins students reported the experience of strolling along a deserted beach and feeling someone walking beside her. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) Most of humanity gets the same feeling while walking alone, especially in the dark, yet, usually, there is no one there and it is a trick of the mind. The student goes on to proclaim, that she did not see or hear anything to indicate there was something there (Irwin, 1999, pg 247), yet, the sense of a presence was very strong and she felt very comfortable with it. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) Could it not have been a cool breeze that caused the student to feel comfortable and, assuming it was warm since she was on the beach, the breeze was strong due to the oceans current? No, the student jumped to the conclusion that it was an apparition or spirit, but unfortunately, the student has no proof. Another experience is of one totally deaf man described hearing the rustle of an apparitional figures dress. (Irwin, 1999, pg 247) Is it really true, or is it the yearning of the man to actually hear something, that his mind played tricks on him? Since most experients whom are able to witness many ghosts or apparitions have known many deceased, could it not be assumed that it is just the mind projecting an image of that we wish to see? A similar analogy would be that of a man trapped in a desert seeing a mirage of a lake. What we see, is simply what we wish to see and nothing more. By analyzing the parapsychological and the paranormal, the survival theory, the situations in which ghosts usually appear and how most of those experiences are easily proven fakes, we have come to the conclusion that it is impossible for ghosts to truly exist unless evidence prove otherwise. Even if, later on, experients actually turn out to have a sixth sense that could perceive the dead, could it not be just that: a sixth sense?

Is Stereotyping Contagious? Essay -- essays research papers fc

Is Stereotyping Contagious? "Recent research indicates that the gap between male and female students' mathematics achievement is gradually beginning to diminish (Gutbezahl, 1995); however, female students are still underrepresented in advanced mathematics classes as well as in careers involving mathematics (Kerr,1994; Stage & Maple, 1996)" (Drzewiecki and Westberg 1). This should concern society including parents, teachers, and students. Carmen Keller is one that has explored the topic of a male driven mathematical field. The goal in her article, " Effect of Teachers' Stereotyping on Students' Stereotyping of Mathematics as a Male Domain" is to discover and prove one aspect to this male domain. This being, students of teachers who tend to stereotype mathematics also tend to stereotype mathematics. Throughout the entire article, Keller supports her thesis very well. The data she uncovers and develops is reliable, because she considers and eliminates features that could possibly factor into her research. She controls external and internal influences such as: school grade, school track, previous achievement; and interest and self-confidence, respectively. Great research data and analysis helps the reader feel supported and the logical information helps connect society and sciences. The following information is a summary of the data and interpretations provided in Carmen Keller's article found in The Journal of Social Psychology. Keller examines an internal influence that effects education, students' perception of mathematics as a male domain. With support of other research she provides, in short, the students' beliefs and their performance are correlated. Meaning that when comparing graphs of student beliefs on gender success in mathematics and actual success, the graphs follow a similar pattern. Through personal experience, I have found this to be true. Students that have positive views about a particular subject tend to be more interested, thus performing better. This also works on the other end of the spectrum. Negative views deem less effort, which produces results below possible accomplishment. The student is not all at fault for these beliefs; they are influence by an outside source in some way. Whether this outside influence is a fellow student, parents, siblings or teachers I feel I still need some more proof. Keller is tryi... ...nces that she did not control. Carmen Keller's article was very informative. Some of the data may have been slightly complicated for an average consumer, not educated in statistics. I have always questioned why I have found more males in my math classes throughout my education and while researching my possible mathematical careers. Now, after reading Keller's article, I have more of an understanding about one of the contributing factors found in the gender-divided mathematical field. Works Cited Drzewiecki, L. and Westberg, K. "Gender Differences in High School Students' Attitudes Toward Mathematics in Traditional Versus Cooperative Groups." The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. 1997, Spring Newsletter. Gutbezahl, J. "How Negative Expectancies and Attitudes Undermine Females' Math Confidence and Performance: A Review of the Literature." ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 380 279. 1995. Kerr, B., "Smart girls too." Ohio Psychological Press 1994. Stage, F. K., and Maple, S. A., "Incompatible Goals: Narratives of Graduate Women in the Mathematics Pipeline." American Educational Research Journal (1996): 33, 23-51.

Free Hamlet Essays: Hamlet, Fortinbras and Leartes :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

Hamlet, Fortinbras and Leartes Hamlet, Fortinbras and Leartes are all very different people with different lives, but as these men interact in the play we learn that there are many circumstances surrounding them that mysteriously connect them. All three of these characters had some reason to avenge some circumstance in their life, but they all had a very different way of conquering the object of their hatred. Fortinbras Fortinbras had levied an army to attack and conquer Denmark. Though son of the late King of Norway, the crown of Norway had gone to his uncle, just as the crown of Denmark had gone to Hamlet's uncle. This shows that in the world of the play it was not unusual for brothers to late kings to be elected to the throne over the pretensions of their younger nephews. But Fortinbras was not prepared to accept his constitutional dispossession so easily. If he had been deprived of the throne of his father, he would try to conquer a kingdom of his own in which, as he later tells Horatio, he has "some rights of memory." Fortinbras is not willing to put an end to his military adventures. Desiring to win honor through the sword, he cares not that the prize of his glory is worthless or that he will sacrifice thousands of lives and much wealth for this hollow victory. Like Hamlet, Sr., Fortinbras is an empire builder who desires only to fight for glory and so, in an ironic way, he is fitted by character to inherit the kingdom of Hamlet, Sr. Leartes Laertes is a young man whose good instincts have been somewhat obscured by the concern with superficial appearances which he has imbibed from his father, Polonius. Like his father, Laertes apparently preaches a morality he does not practice and fully believes in a double standard of behavior for the sexes. But if his father allows him these liberties, it is that he may better approximate the manner of a so - called gentleman. More concerned with the outward signs of gentility than with any inner refinement of spirit, Laertes has well observed his father's advice to be concerned with appearances since "the apparel oft proclaims the man." As unconcerned for the order of society as he is for his own salvation, he would rather "dare damnation" than leave his father's honor and his own besmirched. Though the sight of his sister's madness brings him to a moment of true grief, he is still primarily enraged by his father's "obscure funeral - / No trophy, sword, nor hatchment o'er his bones, / No noble rite nor formal ostentation.

Artificial Intelligence in Gibsons Idoru and Oshiis Ghost in the Shel

Artificial Intelligence in Gibson's Idoru and Oshii's Ghost in the Shell      Ã‚   Introduction If people knew what scientists are up to, they would not be sleeping as calmly as they do today. If only they knew, they would read more carefully what the cyberpunk authors have to say.    The purpose of this work is not only to compare the pictures of Artificial Intelligence (hereafter referred to simply as AI) included in two major works of cyberpunk genre, but also to show the connection between those images and the reality we all live in or its nearest future.    So what is the future of AI depicted in cyberpunk works like? And if, as Sterling suggests, science-fiction writers pass on a cautionary message to the contemporary society in a satirical disguise, are these pictures really parallel to our reality? And if they are, should we be afraid?    The subject matter is Artificial Intelligence. The environments that house the AIs described hereafter are the environments of cyberpunk literature. To understand the findings and conclusions of this work, it is necessary to know the meaning of both these notions.    Defining Basic Notions: Introduction to cyberpunk    Cyberpunk has been present on the literary scene for almost twenty years now, being the most trendy and mainstream sub-genre of science-fiction and, although announced dead by some critics, has not been replaced by any other science-fiction movement so far. But how should we define what cyberpunk is and distinguish it from what is merely cyberpunkish? Appignanesi points out that the major feature of the cyberpunk world is a "total intrusion of technology into human lives" (129) and this may be used as a sufficient... ...iography Works cited Primary: 1. Gibson, William. Idoru. London: Penguin Books. 1997. 2. Ghost in the Shell. Dir. Mamoru Oshii. Masamune Shirow/Kodansha/Bandai Visual/Manga Entertainment. 1995. Secondary: 1. Appignanesi, Richard. Postmodernism for Beginners. Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd. 1995. 2. Buller, Andrzej. Sztuczny mà ³zg. To ju nie fantazje (Artificial Brain. Not a Fantasy Any More). Translation mine. Warszawa: Prà ³szy ski i S-ka. 1998. 3. Marciszewski Witold. Sztuczna inteligencja (Artificial Intelligence). Translation mine. Krakà ³w: SIW Znak. 1998. 4. Cyran Janusz, ed. "Requiem dla ludzko ci?" ("Requiem for Humanity?"). Translation mine. Nowa Fantastyka Oct. 1999: 74 76. 5. Anonymous collective work. The Cyberpunk Project. Authors' Definition. http://www.cyberpunkproject.org/idb/authors_definition.html. 1999.

The Concept of Economy

There have been diverse views from various scholars on the meaning of economy. Of this various definitions includes; Economy is a term derived from the Greek word ‘OIKONOMOS' which means â€Å"One who manages a home†. Even though the term Economy is derived from the Greek word, history has shown that the Babylonians and their neighbouring towns were the first to develop any form of economics as it regards laws and rules. According to Wikipedia (2018) â€Å"The contemporary concept of the economy wasn't popularly known until the American Great Depression in the 1930's†. However, prior to this period, the concept of economy had passed through different phases some of which included; Primary, secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary stage of the economy.What then is Economy?Economy as defined in Investing Answers (2018) â€Å"Is the organised system of human activity involved in the production, consumption, exchange and the production of goods and services†. It is an organised system where money is made through the production and distribution of goods and services. The Oxford Living Dictionaries (2018) also defined economy as ‘the state of a country or region in terms of production and consumption of goods and services and the supply of money'. There are diverse ways of measuring the economic activities of any nation. Some of these ways include;  Gross Domestic ProductsExchange rateStock MarketInterest RateUnemploymentCHINA AND ITS ECONOMYPopularly known as the People's Republic of China. China was established on January 1, 1912 after the Xinhai Revolution that Qung dynasty era. The country is situated in East Asia and is referred to as the most populated country in the world with an estimated number of 1.404 billion people. In terms of land mass after Russia, China is the second largest country in the world. In the world in general, there is a popular conception that the Chinese people can be used for cheap labour. However, despite this notion, the country is the largest emerging economy in the world and is mostly engaged in manufacturing, industrial production, servicing and agriculture. As at 2017, China became the world's largest economy through its purchasing by making $23.12 trillion in comparison to European Union and the United States of America at Second and Third position respectively. Despite being the largest economy in the world, China remains a very poor country with regards to standard of living. This low standard of living attracts people and businesses to the country. Most of China's economic growth is dependent on the exportation of machinery and equipment. Apart from machinery and equipment, other components of China's economy includes; real estate, infrastructure, ports, railways, pipelines, aluminium, copper, cement, steel, exchange, reserves etc. In recent time, China has witnessed a slowdown of its economy which resulted to a slower growth in its GDP. Most of the changes that affects economic growth centres on change that has labour, productivity and capital. In the case of China, the decline in its economic growth is attributed to the huge technological gap between China and other rich countries. Another that contributes to decline the economy is an increase in Country's debt.CHINA AND THE WORLD'S ECONOMYThere is the doubt that in comparison to the world's economy, China's economy is a strong force to reckon with whether or not it is the largest or second largest as measured by GDP. In 2007, from being the sixth economy as at 2002, China was declared the world's largest economy with a total of $23.12 trillion as against the European Union and U.S respectively. This does not dispute the fact that when considering the per capital income of the average man in China, the country's populace comprises off relatively poor people o r that the gradual slowdown in the economy brings with it a lure of fear in the minds of their nations. According to Gutte Wallin Pederson (2002) ‘China's growth has primarily been driven by market oriented reforms and the opening of the Chinese economy to the rest of the world. Other components of China's economy include manufacturing and production of machineries at low costs, foreign direct investments, exportation, agriculture and importation of things consumed in the country. China has contributed immensely to the GDP growth of the world. It is quite central to the world's economic growth. Between 1980 to 2011, China recorded an annual growth of about 10%. A significant thing occurred when China decided to join the World Trade Organization in 2001. This is because along with the accession came China's pledge to provide fair treatment to WTO members ensuring that their enterprises where given the same treatment as that of the Chinese and vice versa. Most of China's economic growth in the world centres on physical capital and human capital. Labour force in China gross rapidly. Countries all over the world regards China's labour force as cheap as such would rather have them in their employ yet a large populous of the workforce has not been tapped. Apart from having a cheap workforce, cost of living in China is also cheap. This explains why countries now go to China to establish companies in other to access raw materials and lower their cost of manufacturing and production. For a country like the USA, China still remains the highest manufacturer of toys. China also exports manufactured products such as phones, electronics, clothing, furniture etc. Most countries depend on China for products they consume. Example African Countries. Despite being the highest exporter of consumer goods all over the world, China is the second largest importer in the world. The country because of its limited natural resources contributes largely to other countries GDP in terms of imports. Most commodities that China imports include; crude oil, petroleum gas, iron ore, lead, copper, palm oil, asphalt etc. For instance, the country's importation of integrated circuits accounted for about 44% of Malaysian exports for 2016. China is one of the major players in the arms market. Prior to now, China was one of the importers of conventional arms. However, in recent times, the reverse has become the case with the country being the 5th largest exporter of these arms as ranked in the world. According to China power (2008) â€Å"Between 2008 and 2012, China exported $14.4 billion worth of conventional weapons across the globe†. During this period, most percentage of arm supply made by China went to Asia and another fraction of Africa. China's neighbours and some parts of America have not been left out of the arm supply trend. For instance, between the aforementioned years, the country provided arms worth $1.86 billion to Bangladesh which is about 71.9% of Bangladesh arms acquisition during this period (China Power 2018). As pointed out by Alec Ash (20177) the basic areas which China intends to drive the world economics' growth and reforms are;a. Innovation-driven economy, tapping the potential of businesses both big and small.b. One belt, one road initiative, connecting trade markets across Eurasian land and sea.c. A rising middle class, growing in number spending power to drive consumption.d. Financial market liberation, speeding improvements in the Chinese market.e. State-Owned enterprises, opening biggest industries.f. Oversea investment, leveraging Chinese capital to revitalize the global economy.g. China intends to be more involved in the world's economy irrespective of being a major player already as the country is gradually becoming a consumption driven economy.Despite being a key player in the world economy, the world itself has witnessed a slowdown in the Chinese economy in recent times. This is because its service sector is suffering from the effects of its workforce population ageing and i ncrease in wages to meet global standards. The use of technology has also declared some job roles obsolete. Justin Kuepper (2017) opines that â€Å"many economists believe the country would have to migrate from manufacturing to services as a primary driver of GDP, just as other developed countries like the United States and those in Europe have done in the past†. There is no doubt that their slowdown will affect economies globally. It may have a deflationary effect on most economies. For instance, countries that exports goods to China will experience a decline in demand for the goods by China. What this implies is that the decline in demand for goods/services will lead to a drop in their price thus reducing the export GDP of these products. Example the demand for crude oil has reduced thus leading to a decline in price of crude oil. These days, China goes to the extent of rendering services in exchange for free crude oil. China's demand for these products will be slow. Other factors contributing to these slowdown include a rise in debt and gradual close of technological gap between China and other countries thus reducing the demand for Chinese products and reducing its productivity growth. Irrespective of what the effects of this slowdown may imply there is a need for countries to brace themselves for the challenges that lie ahead of them globally. Some of the way they can handle ways situation include, reduction of commodity exposure, diversification of investment hedge with puts on Chinese EIF's (Justin Kuepper 2017).IMPACT OF CHINA ECONOMY ON NIGERIAN ECONOMYRelating the impact of China economy to Nigeria, it will not be misleading to say that her impact on the Nigerian economy is quite enormous. It will not be undermining to say that Nigeria is one country that's hugely dependent on China. Most products used in Nigeria are tagged with â€Å"Made in China† labels that ranges from toys, to plastics, household items, machineries, electronics, clothing etc. Nigeria is also dependent on China for some raw materials.Nigerians also negotiate with the Chinese for customized products only for the Nigerian market. In recent times, the Nigerian economy has experienced an advancement in industrialization. This advancement has encourage the production of locally made products and reduced the country's dependence on goods from other countries in terms of economic boost, the country's bilateral ties with other countries of which China is inclusive has also brought about an increase in foreign investment. Nigeria continually comes up with policies that do not only aim at strengthening its bilateral ties but are also targeted at ensuring it is exposed to a wide range of options as regards to the quantity and quality of goods consumed by its citizens in process bring about a reduction in the poverty level. Some of this policies includes; Structural Adjustment package, Trade liberation Policy. The question to be asked is â€Å"Do these policies really help in giving the country trade advantage in the long run?† The major factor contradictory to Nigeria/China bilateral ties is labour force. The Nigerian policies as enticing as they may seem may only suffice for the country's immediate needs. There is little or no transfer of technological knowledge due to language and cultural constraints, Nigerian institutions are not accountable, transparent or credible in their dealings. Despite the above limiting factor on the part of Nigeria, China have been having currency swap dealings with different countries of which Nigeria is partisan. As stated by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Governor, Mr Godwin Emefiele, the currency swap agreement is targeted at helping both countries achieve the following;a. Provision of adequate liquidity of local currency for industrialists in both countries,b. Aid manufacturers businesses in China/Nigeria to access funds to import raw materials from both countries,c. Nigerian businesses who impart from China will be protected from the frequent fluctuations and effects of third party currency.d. It will help people in West Africa have access to China's local currency as Nigeria will be the trade hub in the region for this purpose.Since the availability of natural resources is limited in China, the aforementioned economic giants depends on Nigeria for Agricultural produce and crude oil. The importation of these goods from Nigeria helps increase its exportation quota in terms of GDP although in recent times, China would rather offer free services to Nigeria in exchange for free crude oil.

Comparison Between the Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice and Hamlet Essay

In Elizabethan and Jacobean society, people depended on surprises in highly theatrical entertainment. The playhouses hosted popular theatre performances without stage-sets or props. Unlike today’s modern theatre, the simple ‘stage allowed for swift, fluid action and a concentration on language’. The Jacobean stage would have bought the colours of ‘language’ to life. For example, A vice figure like Iago would use exaggerated words and gestures to stress his strong feeling of antagonism towards Othello. Likewise, a melancholic Hamlet would experiment with words in an overstated manner (to show his conflicted state of mind). The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice (Act I, Scene I) and Hamlet (Act III, Scene IIII) directs the plays to there catastrophic endings. However, the language portrays the relationship between characters in different ways. In Othello, Iago exploits the power of language to manipulate his â€Å"family† and â€Å"friends† and make them puppets for his revenge plan. In Hamlet, the relationship is also one without trust, but it is presented in a quietly deceitful way. The protagonist feels his private life being usurped by spies: Claudio and Polonius. Act I, Scene I of Othello is striking for today’s audience, and the contemporary audience of the time, since it is abounded in coarse animalistic imagery. Iago uses crude language as a persuasive approach. He understands that Brabanzio embodies a Eurocentric view, so he speaks in offensive terms in order to tempt Brabanzio to believe his words. Derogatory references such as ‘old black ram’, ‘coursers for cousins’ and ‘jennets’ evoke a strong sense of hate and prejudice. Metaphorical expressions like ‘coursers’ and ‘jennets’ completely dehumanize Othello. They are also a reminder of the social context, since Othello would have been played by a white actor in the Jacobean period. Iago’s language is concentrated on the colour of Othello’s skin; he describes him as a ‘black ram’ that will breed a generation of horses because of his ‘black’ skin colour and African heritage. The Jacobean audience would have understood how Iago’s poisonous slanders are targeted towards ‘the Moor’, (because of racial differences). Therefore the audience may have shared a similar view on black Africans in Jacobean society. Iago expresses the stark contrasts between the colours ‘black’ and ‘white’. In Shakespeare’s day, blackness was primarily associated with ‘witchcraft’ and ‘voodoo’ while a ‘white ewe’ would be representative of goodness and purity. Rather ironically Iago embodies these racial stereotypes: he does not refer to Othello by his name but as ‘the Moor’. This suggests how Iago exploits Brabanzio’s fatherly love and vulnerability. He is aware that Brabanzio finds it abominable that his daughter can be snatched away in the hands of ‘the Moor’. Consequently, he abuses the use of animal imagery and the conventional colours (‘black and ‘white’) to produce a desirable response. Like Queen Gertrude who passionately cries ‘thou hast cleft my heart in twain’! Brabanzio is also moved by Iago’s lethal words. Powerful images such as ‘tupping your white ewe’ are highly sexual: they therefore have the capacity to cause an explosive reaction. Brabanzio panics frantically, ‘This incident is not unlike my dream; belief of it oppresses me already’. The other characters reactions are indicative of the inevitable destruction that follows as a result of Hamlet and Iago’s ability to influence their rivals through speech. Hamlet’s potent words are ‘like daggers’, thus they are likely to initiate a reaction. However, he uses a persuasive approach that is different to Iago’s. In comparison to Iago’s spontaneous dialogue, Hamlet’s language is more meaningful because it carries the weight of truth. He does not talk figuratively, but uses simple and indisputable facts: ‘A murderer and a villain [†¦] That from a shelf the precious diadem stole and put it in his pocket’. This approach is more likely to disturb the audience because it is full of Hamlet’s fanatical truth. The antagonist of the play (Claudius) is described as ‘A murderer and a villain’ who usurped the Kings position and ‘put it in his pocket’. Unlike Iago’s vulgar language (that is only useful in influencing Roderigo) Hamlet’s use of imagery is effective in persuading the audience, himself, and Queen Gertrude that his rage and revenge is actually permissible. This is because Hamlets revenge is bound with the facts of reality and not with treacherous lies. However, Iago’s language is also effective in showing how his drive for revenge lacks true motive. Hamlet is an ambitious character, yet he feels his father’s cruel murder morally validates him to gain revenge. Iago on the other hand, seizes the opportunity to tell his story of why he hates ‘the Moor’, but the audience find that there is no legitimate reason for him to plot against Othello. He bitterly argues that he deserves the position as ‘lieutenant’: ‘I am worth no worse a place’. Iago also wishes to settle scores with Othello ‘wife for wife’, because he imagines Othello to have had a sexual relationship with Emilia. This makes it obvious to the audience how Iago’s extreme jealousy and bitterness compels him to poison the ears of everyone with lies. However, In Hamlet the audience feel the strong sense of betrayal and deceit, thus they sympathise with Hamlet’s plight because he (unlike Iago) is a genuine victim. Every time Hamlet answers his mother he clearly manifests the reasons for his hatred: ‘Here is your husband [†¦] blasting his wholesome brother’. His words are like a passionate outcry, they desperately try to convey his true intentions. On a Jacobean stage Hamlet maybe erratically gesturing ‘Here is your husband’ to show a sense of connectedness to his fathers death and his revenge. Hamlet is perceived as being mad, yet his words embody more philosophical meaning, truth and depth then Iago’s. The image he creates through his language indicates that his intentions are purposeful. For example, unlike Iago’s futile animalistic language, Hamlet’s words tell a story: ‘you have my father much offended’. The personal pronoun ‘my’ emphasises how he is trying to justify his anger and suggest that his acts and thoughts are occurring in response to the offence Gertrude and Claudius have caused. Similar to Iago’s fierce language, Hamlet’s words are also charged with violent energy. He vehemently questions his mother: ‘Have you eyes’? [†¦] have you eyes? The echo of the words ‘Have you eyes’ emphasizes a sense of deep contemplation and suggests how Hamlet is making a moral statement. Iago and Hamlet express their drive for revenge in passionate terms. Hamlet compels his mother to see how her marriage with Claudius is immoral, ‘where is thy blush’? This instigates the question of how a madman’s words can be deeply introspective. Hamlet is presented as an enigmatic chameleon because of the complex ambiguities in his language. However, this contrasts to how defiant he sounds when he fearlessly answers his mother in this scene: Gertrude asks ‘what have I done’ and Hamlet bluntly replies ‘Such an act that [†¦] calls virtue hypocrite’ II. 39-41. This evokes his sense of bitter resentment for being betrayed by his family. Similarly, Iago appears to be sharply responsive. The difference lies where Hamlet communicates the truth directly to his enemies, while Iago shrewdly conceals his true self. Iago shoots insults at Othello: (such as ‘Barbary horse’) so that he is reduced to the â€Å"savageness† of an animal. A 16th century audience would have been animated and much more receptive towards such insults; consequently they were more likely to have responded to Iago’s crude puns. For example, the word ‘Barbary’ is associated with barbarism and the ferocious speed of a North African horse. (This can have sexual implications, indicating that the ‘white ewe’ and the ‘old black ram’ have eloped together, where they are said to be ‘making the beast with two backs’. Language also plays a vital part in demonstrating the relationship between characters in Othello and Hamlet. Unlike Hamlet who is acting alone, Iago’s manipulative nature makes everyone partake in his scheme for revenge. His poisonous slanders seep in to the minds of his puppets, so that they feel bound to rely on his fabricated stories and the visual evidence that he presents. Iago understands that Roderigo depends on his support to win over Desdemona, he is also conscious of how Othello’s marriage with Desdemona will ignite Roderigo’s desire for revenge. He elaborately tells his tale of why he hates ‘the Moor’ in order to strategically plant even more hatred in Roderigo’s mind. Iago acts sympathetic towards his plight: ‘Why, there’s no remedy. `Tis the curse of service’. Like Hamlet’s sharp â€Å"idle† tongue, Iago’s words are a destructive force responsible for his own downfall. Language such as ‘Why, there’s no remedy’ gives the illusion that his thoughts are pre-mediated in order to create a desired effect. He wishes to manipulate Roderigo by stringing him along with his shrewd words. Consequently, the audience see that Roderigo is easily moved: ‘I rather would have been his hangman’. His tone of voice foreshadows the turmoil that will unfold in the play because he is poisoned by Iago’s words. Furthermore, Iago exploits the art of language to manipulate people and intrude upon their lives. He convinces Brabanzio that his daughter has in fact eloped with his worse fear, a black African. Iago’s astute nature means that he is aware of how to plot against Othello. Roderigo and Iago racially abuse him, calling him ‘thick lips’. However, Iago’s intrusive behaviour towards Othello contrasts with the ‘spying and surveillance’ scene in Hamlet. This is because Iago playfully experiments with words in order to cause hostility. Whereas in Hamlet, the lack of trust means that the antagonists infringe upon Hamlets life in a secretive manner. This scene is a vivid example of how the characters are constantly observing each other, like a predator watching its prey. When Hamlet wanders in to his mother’s private chamber, the first thing he would expect is to be alone with her. However, the stage direction reveals how ‘POLONIUS hides behind the arras’. Like Iago’s destructive invasiveness, this act of intrusion instantly provokes fear. This is because the audience would be well aware of Hamlets inconsistent thoughts and erratic behaviour. Hamlet’s relationship between characters can also be seen to resemble the nature of Iago. This is because Hamlet becomes a product of his own corrupt society: when he acts out of impulse his revenge loses all of its meaning. Hamlet is no longer a betrayed and lonely man (who the audience sympathised with) but a vice figure and a destructive force comparable to Iago. The stage directions suggest that when Hamlet thrusts his sword through the arras and kills Polonius he truly displays elements of insanity. He acts instantaneously, discarding the need to first check who is behind the arras. Thus, after killing Polonius Hamlet displays no sign of emotion or disbelief. Hamlets act mimics the selfish nature of Iago (as he has no emotional attachment with other characters). In Hamlet and Othello, there is a major theme of deceit and betrayal that invades the plays scenes. Hamlet and Iago’s language reveals a lot about the social context and the motive driving their passion for revenge. By the end of the scene Hamlet is left completely isolated from his society, he does not feel inclined to show any sign of formal love for his family. His lack of trust impels him to act erratically by blindly killing Polonius. In a similar way, Act I, Scene I of Othello begins with Roderigo questioning Iago whether he truly hates ‘the Moor’ :‘I take it much unkindly [†¦] Iago who hast had my purse As if the strings were thine, shouldst know this’. This invokes the general theme of deceit in the scene, and establishes how Iago is duplicitous like Hamlet. The same way Hamlet conceals his sanity from the world, Iago exploits the power of language to disguise himself in order to continue controlling his victims.